The Development of Hungary’s Relationship with the EU in 1999 and 2000
The Development of Hungary’s Relationship with the EU in 1999 and 2000
The process of Hungary’s European and Euro-Atlantic integration with the European Union and NATO entered into a new, decisive phase with the commencement of accession negotiations in 1998. Our accession to the North-Atlantic Treaty Organization, the definitive institution of the Continent’s security policy architecture, in March 1999 ended an era. Our voluntary membership in NATO, sought out of national interest, has confirmed the results achieved in a market economy and democracy during the first decade of the transition period, has defined the place and the international affiliations of the country for a long time to come, has brought about improved security environment and conditions for the modernization and rapprochement of the country, and finally has helped to achieve the aspirations of the country for EU accession, which enjoys national consensus.
As an associate country and one ranked for accession in the first round by the European Council, Hungary has continued its cooperation with the European Union over the last two years. Both parties are continuously fulfilling their obligations stemming from the Association Agreement. Hungary is performing successfully in accordance with the defined programs and national strategies.
It is especially important from the perspective of EU accession that the economy has stabilized and conditions of sustainable development are in place, thanks to the economic policy pursued. In 1999 and 2000 annual GDP growth was constantly above 4% which, coupled with unemployment which fell below 8%, is more favorable than the EU country average. During the last two years exports have increased faster than imports and, surpassing the world trade average, have grown by an annual 8 to 10%. The competitiveness of domestic products has increased by 20%. The influx of foreign working capital has risen further and, by the end of 2000, surpassed the USD 23 billion mark. Although inflation was higher than forecast, macroeconomic indicators have not deteriorated; the general government deficit remained higher than planned, the current account deficit was financed from foreign capital influx. All this was partly due to unfavorable outside circumstances (Russian financial crisis and the war in former Yugoslavia). The most notable international analysts unequivocally assessed the performance of the Hungarian economy as being positive by the end of the decade, reclassifying the country from the group of “transitory economies” to the group of “progressing economies”.
The change in the destinations and the product portfolio of Hungarian foreign trade was even more convincing. By the end of the 1990s, the share of the EU member states in Hungarian had reached 77% and 67% in exports and imports, respectively. Trade with the European Union in 1999 and 2000 showed USD 1 billion during both years in our favor. The share of machinery and equipment in this regard has improved dynamically as a result of the successful structural transformation of the economy. Enterprises and banks of the Union are the most significant investors in Hungary, with their share being in excess of 60%. Overall, it can be said that the foreign trade (real) integration of the country into the Union has achieved definitive levels prior to integration, and thanks to dynamic development our accession will not be a burden but rather a boosting factor on the economies of the Union.
Hungary’s activity in the field of legal harmonization has been unbroken since the signing of the Association Agreement, and has yielded significant results during the past two years. Legal approximation based of the associate status today, is serving the purposes of preparation for accession. The National Program for the Adoption of the Acquis (NPAA), approved in early 1998, provides an integrated framework for legal harmonization, institutional and human resource development and measures aimed at economic development.
The program encompassed numerous key steps aimed at harmonization during the past two years. Such an example in the political sphere is the launch of the mid-term action program approved in April 1999, aimed at improving the situation of the Romany minority (employment, education, housing, and health affairs). In economic terms one could cite measures aimed at adopting the regulations of the internal market, such as the revised, EU-compatible Customs Act, the accelerated adoption of EU standards (6,884 of the 11,456 EU standards had been adopted by the first half of 2000), the new taxation regulations (the abolishment of reduced VAT rates on certain products and services, the elimination of existing structural differences in excise tax by law), the launch of the new energy program and the drafting of new employment policies which better reflect European employment strategies. The complex support provided to small-to-medium-sized enterprises (ranging from the development of the entrepreneurial network, through training, to improved access to financial resources) is an important priority of the Széchenyi Plan. Steps have been taken in the field of justice and home affairs towards the introduction of a uniform visa policy, safer border management, and several international treaties (EU, OECD) against corruption have been incorporated in Hungarian law. The establishment of a new Office for Immigration and Citizen’s Affairs in January 2000 was an important step of institutional harmonization in the field of refugee affairs. There have been efforts aimed at strengthening the institutional background of the fight against organized crime, and a national strategy was approved for the management of drug-related problems.
The government reviewed and revised the NPAA in June 2000. The review encompassed new requirements which came to light with changes in the acquis and was discussed during the accession talks. The revised NPAA also contains a concrete implementation plan for 2000 to 2002 for the adoption of all the acquis chapters. The plan is in harmony with the legal harmonization programs and establishes a link with comprehensive national programs such as the Széchenyi Plan. The economic basis of the plan is set forth in the strategic plan approved by the government in June 1999, under the title “Catching up with Europe”, which provides a uniform framework for EU assistance programs and the objectives of the NPAA.
In the case of EU assistance, Hungary has received an annual average of EUR 100 million of non-refundable assistance from the Phare program over the past two years for different investment, energy, infrastructure-development, public administration and welfare institutional development purposes. In accordance with the “New Orientation” reform of the program approved in 1998, assistance is distributed for accession-related tasks directly on the basis of priorities set forth in the NPAA. As a result, the high priority topics for the 2000-2006 period include ones such as expert assistance for the establishment of institutions to ensure compliance with the acquis, training and twinning, mainly in the justice, employment, social policy, health and financial sectors, support provided to the Romany minority and also the introduction of regional development, programming and management methods as well as the establishment of local practices to receive the structural funds of the Union. The introduction of ministerial-level coordination in 1998 and 1999 significantly improved the efficiency of the use of Phare funds.
Decision No. 1266/99/EC of the European Council has decided, that from 2000 onwards the European Union is to assist the preparation of associate countries with the introduction of two new financial instruments besides the Phare-program. ISPA, the structural assistance provided in the framework of the pre-accession strategy, has the main objective of preparing the relevant countries to use Union funds, with particular attention to investment and institutional development in the fields of environment and infrastructure. The special assistance program for agriculture and regional development (SAPARD) is aimed at preparing the receipt of European agricultural and guarantee funds and the introduction of a sustainable agricultural and regional development strategy, as well as the establishment of competitive sectors. In the course of the period between 2000 and 2006, Hungary can tap into EUR 100 million from ISPA and EUR 38 million from SAPARD, annually.
The results of economic development and accession preparations are well reflected in the country reports published by the European Commission in the autumn of 1999 and 2000, which analyzes and assesses the preparedness of candidate countries for integration. The Commission had earlier examined the fulfillment of the 1994 Copenhagen Criteria for membership in its analyses prepared in 1997 and 1998. These assessed the ability to assume the obligations stemming from membership and the situation in respect of the adoption of acquis and depicted a favorable assessment of the Hungarian case.
Beyond the positive overall assessment, the latest annual reports also show that the Republic of Hungary not only achieved significant progress in the field of preparation, but is also among the leading candidates in fulfilling accession criteria. Based on the report, Hungary is a democratic constitutional state, continuously fulfilling the Copenhagen political criteria, i.e., it respects human rights and freedoms and has a stable institutional background, which guarantees democracy and the rule of law.
In respect of the economy, the report states that Hungary possesses a functional market economy, which has integrated the furthest into the Union, one that has achieved significant progress in consolidating and strengthening the institutional foundations of market economy. If the current economic policy is pursued even further, the country will in the near future be capable of coping with the pressures of competition and market forces within the Union. This is an important statement in the country report of Autumn 2000 in contrast with last year’s, which stated that economic competitiveness would be achieved only in the medium term.
We have also received very good ratings in respect of the adoption and implementation of the acquis communautaire. The annual report for 2000 states that Hungary has not only shown commendable progress in adopting and implementing the acquis, but has also reached good levels in most of the areas of preparation for membership, developing a firm institutional, legal and administrative base, which includes key institutions and public administration facilities necessary for entry into the internal markets.
We can consider it natural that the detailed, nearly 100 page-long, country reports prepared by the Commission will also have observations which call the attention to the necessity for more efforts in certain areas besides noting the progress made in the preparations. Recent reports, for example, mention Hungary’s, along with other candidates’, need to improve the situation of the Romany population and to take further steps in the fight against corruption. In the field of economy, the report mentions the issue of price stability and continued fiscal consolidation (healthcare, transportation, and local governments), whereas in respect of the acquis, it cites the need to speed up legal approximation in the field of plant and animal health, transportation, and environment protection. Besides raising such issues, the Commission has acknowledged steps taken or envisaged in the given area and the NPAA.
All in all, the report of the Commission on Hungary strikes a very positive note and - in respect of all membership criteria - continuously ranks the country among the first three in the group of candidates. In this sense, Hungarian and foreign analysts are on the opinion that - provided there is no substantial change in the performance of the country in it preparations and the EU’s assessment of this up to late 2002 - Hungary has a solid chance of being among the first to join the European Union.
Another important aspect of relations is the development of the European Union and its own preparations for this historic enlargement towards the east. The last two years have brought significant changes regarding the political and academic-professional debate on the state of the Union, the orientation of its further evolution, and its preparations for eastward enlargement. Attempts and statements about outlining a future vision -which was boosted by the approaching Millennium - had both direct and indirect impacts on the relations between Hungary and the EU.
Placing Europe in the context of a world economy and global policy, the analytical works of researchers and public figures concede that they look upon the European Union as being a pole of the newly emerging world order, which will only be able to compete with the USA and the Far-East by further enhancing and deepening integration. Special mention has to be made of the so-called “Lubbers Report” published in 1999 by the Advisory Council on International Affairs in The Hague, which envisages the evolution of the EU up to 2010 along the lines of three scenarios. The first model (“Competitive Europe”) reckons with 26 member states, a wide integration in which the economic and monetary union would be coupled with increasing social disparities. In the second model (“Europe of Conscience”), the integration is also wide and strong, but here a greater emphasis on social cohesion results in slower growth and a weaker Euro. The third option, “Mosaic Europe” - a rather pessimistic choice - would have integration with only a few member states, while the rest of the continent would be divided into local markets and regional groupings on the basis of cultural cohesion.1 A study (called the “Amato Report” after its editor, the former Italian Prime Minister) applying a similar approach was published by the University of Florence in the Spring of 2000. Its main research criteria were also enlargement and social problems, namely the contradiction between a common political identity and cultural differences, the issue of national minorities, the social divide between old and new members, and the challenges of protecting common borders.2 A speech delivered by German Foreign Minister Joschka Fischer on 12 May 2000 at Humboldt University, Berlin caught the attention of many because he supported the establishment of a federal state and multi-speed integration.3
Naturally, the leading bodies of the European Union also contributed to forming a future vision. The “official scenario” for the further development of the Union was outlined by the European Council’s Lisbon Summit in March 2000. The document approved here had a comprehensive plan for the future of the Union, which has the following main strategic objectives: the establishment of a knowledge-based, information society, a competitive, sustainable economy, which establishes jobs and a modernized European social model, including the establishment of an actively functioning welfare state. Among the objectives to be realized by 2010 we find the following: an annual 3% economic growth rate for the member countries, the establishment of 20 to 30 million new jobs, a complete liberalization of telecommunications and financial services thus fully implementing a unified internal market, and a more efficient coordination of the EU’s efforts. Realizing all these by 2010, the EU will reach the level of macroeconomic development of the USA, without giving up on such classical European economic and social principles as full employment and social cohesion.
Hungary is interested in joining a prosperous and efficient European Union with a firm and attractive future vision. Official Hungarian statements welcomed the “Lisbon Approach”, which, as opposed to comparing the objectives of economic development and social cohesion with those of further enhancing and deepening the Union, treats them in an integral way. For this reason - as it was emphasized many times by Hungarian statesmen - we support the ambitious objectives set forth in Lisbon, and are convinced that the vigorously developing Hungarian economy can positively contribute to their implementation. Knowing that the establishment of an information society is the precondition for bringing about sustainable economic development, Hungary has taken several steps to promote IT education and widen access over recent years (school internet program, tele-houses, establishment of the “IT Commissioners” Office, etc.).
It is this constructive and realistic approach that characterizes the Hungarian position concerning questions related to the further deepening and internal functioning of the Union. In June 2000, Minister of Foreign Affairs János Martonyi spoke at an international conference held in Peralada, Spain. Talking about the basic characteristics of integration in the 21st century, he mentioned federal structures - with decisions partially delegated to regional levels (reducing but not abolishing state authority) - and the strengthening of subsidiarity, the reduction of bureaucratic controls, an increased contribution of member states to the financing of common policies, the strengthening of European identity and cultural diversity, and, as a result of all these, an increased legitimacy for European institutions. What concerns the “enhanced cooperation” raised by A. J. Fischer and others as being a new element of integration (accelerated growth in the integration of some member countries), Hungary could only find it acceptable if it acted as a magnet, i.e., if it was inclusive and not exclusive in nature, leading to progress even those who did not join at first, and one which did not differentiate between member states by their date of accession.4
It became generally accepted when talking about the evolution of integration that it has reached a new historic phase once the economic and monetary union was in place. During this period, dimensions of the political union, i.e., the common foreign and security policy and cooperation in the field of justice and home affairs, are also in the forefront along with economic and financial objectives.
The EC Summit held in Cologne in June 1999 and the following one in December in Helsinki formulated important decisions on the further development of the CFSP and the establishment of a new Common Security and Defense Policy, including the option to launch military crisis management operations, the elimination of any redundancies with NATO, the establishment of military capabilities and capacities for crisis management, peacekeeping and humanitarian intervention, as well as the political and security policy institutions to control them and the integration of the WEU into EU structures within two years. The political objectives of these decisions were to make the Union capable of independent crisis management and to develop military potential accordingly. A recent result of this latter program was a pledge conference held in Brussels on 21 and 22 November 2000, which decided to set up a European Rapid Reaction Corps with the participation of virtually all the member and candidate countries within two years.
By virtue of our geographical location, we welcomed these decisions, since Hungary was interested in three regards three-fold - as an EU candidate, a member of NATO, and an associate member of WEU - in maintaining the security of Europe, and was ready to take its proportional share in implementing the CESDP (Hungary offered to send a mechanized infantry battalion and an air defense battery, with 350 soldiers for Eurocorps).
Regular political dialogue and consultation continued in the framework established earlier between Hungary and the EU along common objectives and values, and the number of démarches approved by the EU to which Hungary joined exceeded 300.
Hungary’s position is that a CESDP, clearly defined in both political and military regards, can only increase the role and responsibility of the EU in maintaining the security of the Continent. It was this conviction that led Hungary to join the implementation of the Southeast European Stability Pact as the co-chair of “working table” No. 1, which deals with issues of democracy and human rights.
Regional and subregional cooperation programs in which Hungary is actively participating also serve the purpose of stability and democratic development of the Central and Eastern European region. The period of 1999 and 2000 opened up a new chapter in the cooperation of the Visegrád Four, reviving and filling it with new substance, enriching the political consultation with tangible (cultural, educational) cooperation programs, thus promoting the EU accession of members, and assisting Slovakia in catching up. The dialogue and exchange of opinions in the Central European Initiative helped better define the profile and tasks of the group leading to the launch of specific economic, infrastructural, and cross-border cooperation. Hungary attaches an important supplementary role to this in the EU accession processes of member states.
Cooperation in the field of justice and home affairs gained more and more attention. The European Council’s meeting in Tampere in October 1999 approved decisions which not only emphasized the political, legal, and security aspects of this issue in a structured and complex manner, but also paid equal attention to social and humanitarian aspects.
From the moment of EU accession, Hungary desires to become a full-fledged member of all the dimensions of EU including the “third pillar”. Hungarian legislation and practice is already by and large in harmony with Union objectives, the institutional system of the rule of law, the democratic and legal functioning of the police and judicial bodies all serve to fulfil the obligations undertaken. Developments of the past two years include the development of a complete system of border registry, the establishment of an integrated refugee and migration organization and alien registry, the modernization of refugee shelters, the launch of an IT system for the Hungarian consular service (first among the candidates), and the approval by Parliament of a legal package against organized crime. We have continued our efforts in the framework of the accession partnership in the fight against organized crime and corruption.
The Tampere Resolutions have opened up new opportunities for Hungary and other candidates, since they envisage technical assistance for investments into the development of border protection on future external borders. This makes it easier for us to prepare for the adoption of the Unions regulations on border protection. We are still looking for political and legal solutions which after accession to the Schengen Treaty will help us in our contacts with neighboring countries and the Hungarian minorities living there.
The issue of eastward enlargement has been given much importance in future visions and the internal debates and decisions of the European Union alike. This issue appears in the Union approach in relation to other key questions of the further development of integration, primarily its deepening and internal evolution, and on the other hand with the expected impacts and financing of the enlargement. Among the enlargement criteria approved by the 1994 Copenhagen meeting of the European Council there is mention of “the Union’s capability to adopt new members without hindering the impetus of development in integration”. Thus the progress of the enlargement process started in 1997 and 1998 has at least partly become dependent on the internal, primarily institutional, reforms of the EU, besides the preparedness of candidates.
A decision was made on enlargement, with accession talks starting with the first candidates in March 1998, the key stages of which were the Council of Europe’s 1999 meetings in Berlin and Helsinki. The strategic importance of the decisions made in Berlin lies in the fact that the EU managed to agree on approving the Agenda 2000 package and the provision of financial instruments aimed at financing enlargement. The Helsinki decisions were also fundamental in nature. According to them, the Union would start discussions with another 5+1 associated countries - Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, and Malta - and undertook to successfully conclude the intergovernmental conference on institutional affairs by the end of 2000 and establish the internal conditions necessary to start enlargement by the end of 2002.
The Intergovernmental Conference on Institutional Affairs (IGC) was in session for 336 days from February to December 2000, in Nice. The results of the conference have been included in the Nice Agreement approved by the European Council meeting held at the end of the French presidency. Beside the main elements of institutional reform (number of commissioners, proportion of votes, the distribution of parliamentary seats, extension of majority voting, and “enhanced cooperation”) the European Council also decided on enlargement, defining the schedule for accession talks in the future (“road-map”). According to this, the EU declared - reiterating its earlier undertaking - its commitment to be ready to adopt new members by the end of 2004, doing this with the intent of allowing the new members to already run in the 2004 European Parliament elections (this indirectly implies accession of the first round of new members by the beginning of 2004, at the latest).
The Nice decisions were advantageous for Hungarian-EU ties. Hungary has said from the outset that it intended to join a well functioning and efficient integration, thus it is interested in the successful and timely conclusion of the IGC. Certain resolutions of the institutional reform are favorable for Hungary with the exception of one topic, which can still be changed during the negotiation phase (the number of parliamentary seats). It is also advantageous from the perspective of Hungarian accession that the EU has accepted the schedule of accession talks, it has reiterated the principle of differentiation on the basis of individual merits (leaving open the possibility of catching up) and it has left open a theoretical possibility of progressing in advance of the schedule, thus of accession in 2003.
European Council decisions of the past two years have thus cleared two of the three obstacles to enlargement (costs of enlargement plus the “Amsterdam leftovers” of institutional reform), meaning that the key element of the accession process after Nice is the successful and timely conclusion of the accession negotiations.
With respect to the developments of the Hungarian-EU talks in 1999 and 2000, we should mention “acquis screening” which was completed on 2 July 1999. In the course of the screening, experts of the two parties - meeting in 77 rounds of negotiations, on the basis of 35 government proposals and resolutions each - reviewed the 31 chapters of community legislation, amounting to 80,000 pages, containing 20,000 thousand regulations, decrees, directives, decisions, positions, and recommendations. During the course of this, the parties also identified problems to be handled during later discussions. Substantial and tangible talks started in earnest after 10 November 1998, following the drafting and submission of the Hungarian position (“position paper”) on the chapters screened. With few exceptions, Hungary handed over all its position papers to its negotiating partners by November 1999.
By the end of 2000, talks have started regarding all (29) chapters of the community legislation (with the exception of institutional issues and “miscellaneous” matters). So far the agendas on fourteen chapters have been temporarily closed (small-to-medium-sized enterprises, science and research, education and training, statistics, industrial policy, telecommunications and information technologies, fisheries, consumer protection, economic and monetary union, common foreign and security policy, financial control, energy, external relations, social policy, and employment). Talks have started and are underway in five other topics (free movement of goods, customs union, company law, taxation, and services). The screening of new EU legislation is also underway as well as the monitoring of compliance with obligations of adopting legislation (“updating” and “monitoring”).
It is an important achievement of Hungarian-EU talks that all chapters have been opened and this has allowed talks to enter into a new phase. In this phase the key Hungarian objective was, after identifying problems, to have progress towards solutions, find compromise solutions in the “easier chapters”, clear the negotiating table, and, during the first half of 2001; the term of the Swedish presidency, have tangible talks on the “tough chapters” still outstanding (free movement of capital, free movement of people, and environmental protection).
In this and the coming decisive phases of the negotiations, proving our abilities is no longer our objective. Instead we wish to join on the basis of well-defined conditions, in line with our national interests, fully enjoying rights and opportunities, and fully undertaking obligations stemming from membership. Naturally, there are areas in which - heeding the interests of the Hungarian population, enterprises, and the budget - we need to request temporary derogation. These can not cause insurmountable problems because a substantial number of our derogation requests are limited to a few chapters, while it is expected that the EU will also request derogation in certain areas.
The “road-map” approved in Nice makes substantial progress possible during the first half of 2001 by applying a flexible and differentiated approach, which can allow the better prepared candidates to speed up the talks. Hungary is hopeful that the dynamics of the negotiations will pick up and talks will finish successfully by the end of 2001. This would allow the Country to become a member of the Union as early as 2003 following ratification in the member states. To this end, Hungary is willing to speed up the implementation of outstanding integration related tasks, as a part of which the government will, during the first half of 2001, submit to the Parliament three legislative packages, which have been defined as being a precondition of accession.
Preparing society for membership in the European Union is a particular task in the accession preparations of Hungary. This process has a decade long history in the country and the past two years have also produced significant results.
With the completion of the first initial phase of the government communications strategy, the second phase set the objective of allowing citizens with basic knowledge on the EU and Hungarian integration to formulate their own opinion on the prospects and content of being part of integration. Besides programs intended for the public at large, there were special target groups in the communication process, such as the media, teachers, youth, entrepreneurs, intellectuals in the countryside, NGOs, interest representation groups, and the agrarian society.
We have continued with the well-tested information campaign. A topical series of brochures entitled “It concerns me too” on the EU and the important topics of Hungarian accession were published in 29 editions by late 2000. Through competition for the printed media, 25 major national publications were given support between 1998 and 2000 to publish integration-related articles (agriculture, commerce, transportation, education, etc.) and thirteen county papers carried integration supplements. The number and variety of integration related programs in the electronic media - especially the Hungarian State Television, Hungarian Radio, and Duna Television - also increased.
Complex mass events were organized to inform the wider public. By late 2000 the number of Europe Days organized with the cooperation of local governments, non-governmental organizations, and the EU Delegation in Budapest grew to 37. Such Europe Days were organized during the Millennium Year among others in Gyula, Eger, Záhony, Csenger, Mohács, Szekszárd, Nagykanizsa, Sopron, Székesfehérvár and four communities in Bács-Kiskun County. Europe Stands were erected at all international fairs and exhibitions held in Hungary, providing information about current events of EU integration. European Information Points combine regional and citizen friendly information, which offer library, documentation and other services in all of the counties by 2001.
The training of Hungarian officials and experts on EU integration has continued with the participation of several thousands of government, local-government, and judicial experts. The Hungarian Public Administration Institute has also joined the organization of this training and Centers of European Studies were established from Phare Funds at twelve universities and colleges. All this was positively reflected in the Commission’s country reports on Hungary, which mention it as a sign of preparedness.
Communication with member states also gains importance with the tangible progress of the accession process. This is because besides the generally positive political intent of accepting Hungary as a member, there have been concerns and qualms which have surfaced among the population and in some cases among opinion-formers in the member states. This is reflected by the results of a survey carried out by Eurobarometer in the spring of 2000, which point out that although there is higher support for our accession than for other candidates, there is some decline in public support in countries such as France and the United Kingdom, for example.
All this called for a deliberate and efficient “external communication strategy” with the objective of demonstrating our preparedness for integration and clearing any doubts with information and reasoning. Among the important efforts in this program of information was the publication of a country information booklet directed at professional audiences in several languages, the Internet broadcast of the Hungarian-Dutch integration round-table, the debate at the Hungarian days in Berlin, the Europe 2020 conference organized in Budapest and the exhibition titled “What is Hungary bringing to the European Union?” organized in Hanover. The new, integration homepage of the MFA is an important communication tool, providing updated information. A computer (DVD) game on country information was released on the 50th Anniversary of the Finnish-Hungarian Friendship Society in Helsinki. There will also be a public information competition started on the internet in 2001 on the preparedness of Hungary.
The communication program approved by the Commission in May 2000 has a positive influence on the implementation of our communication strategy, aimed at providing information to the public (business life, society, churches, education etc.) in the candidate countries and the member states. The comprehensive six-year program launched in 2000 with EUR 150 million in support from the EU may contribute to strengthening the intellectual base both at home and in the member states.
Dr. László Nyusztay
1The IGC 2000 and beyond: towards a European Union of thirty member states, Advisory Council on International Affairs (Chair: Prof. R.F.M. Lubbers), The Hague, 2000.
2Giuliano Amato (chair), Final Report of the Reflection Group on the Long-term Implications of EU Enlargement: the Nature of the New Border, The Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, European University Institute, The Forward Studies Unit of the European Commission, Florence, 1999.
3“From Confederacy to Federation - Thoughts on the Finality of European Integration”, Speech by Joschka Fischer at Humboldt University in Berlin, 12 May 2000, Federal Foreign Office, Berlin.
4Lecture given in Spain on the EU’s Future by János Martonyi. MTI, Luxembourg, 13 June 2000. MFA Spokesman’s Office, Bp., p. 1-2.
